Recent Articles
Categories
Who hasn’t spent a string of late nights preparing for midterms, only to find their mind drawing a blank when it comes time to write? As most students have come to learn, the time and effort invested in studying does not always equate to increased academic success. In university, students develop study habits that work for them, but with unguided development, the result doesn’t always promote the most efficient learning. In an ideal world, time spent studying would directly correlate to knowledge acquired and information retained. However, not all studying strategies are created equal, and many students are left feeling frustrated, inferior, or as if they are wasting their time. The question then becomes, how can students make the most of their studying? Are there guidelines that can help turn those long hours pouring over textbooks and notes into better grades and knowledge?
In order to answer these questions, it is imperative that students gain a deeper understanding of how humans learn.
Recent advances in the science of learning and memory have challenged common assumptions about how learning happens. The passive techniques often favored by students, like highlighting and rereading textbook material, have substantial evidence pointing to their ineffectiveness (Dunlosky et al., 2013). Contemporary research on learning is very diverse. Empirical investigation of learning is conducted by researchers from several disciplines including cognitive science, educational psychology, computer science, anthropology, sociology, and neuroscience (Seel N., 2012 ). One such researcher is Dr. Megan Sumeracki, an assistant professor at Rhode Island College, whose area of expertise is in human learning and memory. Her research program focuses on retrieval-based learning strategies, and the way study activities promoting retrieval can lead to meaningful learning in the classroom. She addresses empirical questions such as; what retrieval practice formats promote student learning, what retrieval practice activities work well for different types of learners, and ultimately, why does retrieval increase learning?
Dr. Sumeracki partnered with Dr. Yana Weinstein to establish The Learning Scientists, an educational community with a vision to make scientific research on learning more accessible to students, teachers, and other educators. Through this community platform, they share effective study and teaching strategies. These are ideas backed by large amounts of research, and offer important insights on how students can cultivate cognitive abilities to maximize their learning potential. I had the chance to chat with Dr. Sumeracki. During our conversation, she enthusiastically walked me through some of the strategies they discuss on their website.
Retrieval Practice
Retrieval practice can be simply thought of as self-testing or any kind of practice that requires one to deliberately recall (retrieve) information (Weinstein & Sumeracki, 2018). For most students, the idea of testing brings a surge of anxiety, but the surprising reality is that testing improves memory of the tested information. Memories are not fixed objects. Neurons interact with other neurons through connectors called synapses to form memories (Squire L., 2009). When neurons fire off together, a pattern is formed. When you are put in a position where you must recall an answer, retrieving the memory will light up this previously established connection, emphasizing its importance and giving the neural pathway increased permanence. The effectiveness of retrieval practice was exhibited as early as 100 years ago when Arthur Gates demonstrated that students could memorize a written passage more effectively when they had to practice reciting them from memory (Gates A. I., 1917). Multiple laboratory and classroom studies now exist, suggesting the effectiveness of retrieval practice (Roediger & Karpicke, 2006) and its versatility across a variety of age groups (Karpicke, Blunt, & Smith, 2016; McDaniel et al., 2013; McDermott et al., 2014).
This technique is not only beneficial for memorization but also promotes meaningful learning. Meaningful learning is the act of developing a coherent understanding of concepts that supports transfer, inferencing, and problem-solving (Karpicke & Blunt, 2011). An example of this (Blunt & Karpicke 2014) was demonstrated in a study that had students read educational texts on science topics using two different strategies. The first strategy had students read the text, set it aside, and write out as much information from the text as they could remember before repeating the process again. In the second condition, students read the text while simultaneously creating a concept map. Each group studied the text for an equal amount of time. A week after the learning session, the two groups were tested with inferential and problem-solving questions used to measure meaningful learning. The first group that practiced retrieval had significantly better results. The same effect has been seen in many other experiments (Jensen et al., 2014; Butler, A.C. 2010) suggesting that retrieval is an incredibly powerful way to spend your study time.
Spaced Repetition
Spaced repetition is the antithesis to cramming. Studies have shown that if the same amount of time that was spent studying during one sitting was spaced out over multiple review sessions, the multiple review sessions promote longer retention of the material (Kang, S.H. 2016). This effect can be explained by an idea known as “The Forgetting Curve”. This curve hypothesizes the decline in memory retention over time and shows how information is lost when there is no attempt to retain it (Ebbinghaus, H., 1885). Spaced repetition is a means to interrupt the forgetting curve. Every time the curve is interrupted, it takes longer to forget the information of interest. The effectiveness of this technique was first demonstrated empirically by Hermann Ebbinghaus in 1885 where he found that when he spaced out repetitions across 3 days, he could almost halve the number of repetitions necessary to relearn a series of 12 syllables in one day (Ebbinghaus, H., 1885). The effect is intuitive, and most students already put this into practice. Everyone knows if you study something once, you will most likely forget it and need a refresher. Spaced repetition takes this a step further by planning the review session intervals so that they happen after you have already forgotten the information. The act of recalling the information after the brain has forgotten it, forces the brain to work harder so when the idea is recalled and the neural pattern is formed, the pattern has increased permanence.
Interleaving
Interleaving is a process by which students mix, or interleave, multiple topics while they study (Weinstein & Sumeracki, 2018). It differs from the more commonly used method known as “blocked practice” which involves studying one topic thoroughly before moving onto another. Interleaving has been shown to be more effective than blocked practice for developing the skills of categorization and problem solving (Patel et al., 2016; Rohrer & Taylor, 2007; Rohrer et al., 2015). For example, in a study with college students (Rohrer & Taylor, 2007), it was found that mixing math problems that involved calculating volumes of different shapes, resulted in a better test performance one week later than when students answered multiple problems about the same shape in a row. The explanation for the benefit of interleaving is that switching between different problem types strengthens the student’s ability to choose the right method for solving different types of problems (Weinstein & Sumeracki, 2018). Blocked practice results in the student learning the method but doesn’t guarantee an understanding of when to apply it. The benefits of interleaving extend beyond problem-solving. It can be helpful in situations that require differentiation such as inductive learning. One example of this was demonstrated with students who were asked to match paintings to the correct painter (Kornell & Bjork, 2008). Students that interleaved different painter’s paintings during their study we’re much more successful than students who studied the paintings of one painter at a time. The researchers later proposed the idea that “the benefit of mixing exemplars from different categories is that doing so highlights differences between the categories” (Kornell & Bjork, 2008). The ability to apply one’s knowledge of a concept across a greater context is an important aspect of developing a thorough understanding of that concept. Failure to approach studying with this method can often result in the inability to achieve this deeper level of comprehension, especially if one isn’t intentional and present during study time.
Throughout the duration of our conversation, Dr. Sumeracki’s passion for improving education and helping students succeed was evident. Education is an important area of research, and one that can help us become better learners. The strategies shared through The Learning Scientists’ community are supported by substantial amounts of evidence. As a student, teacher or anyone who invested in education, these ideas should be of serious interest.
For additional information on Dr. Sumeracki’s research, the topics discussed in this article, and practical ways to implement the strategies, visit the Learning Scientists website.
Authors
References:
Birnbaum, M. S., Kornell, N., Bjork, E. L., & Bjork, R. A. (2013). Why interleaving enhances inductive learning: the roles of discrimination and retrieval. Memory & Cognition, 41, 392–402.
Blunt, J.R., & Karpicke, J.D. (2014). Learning with retrieval-based concept mapping. Journal of Educational Psychology, 106(3), 849-858. doi:10.1037/a0035934.
Butler, A.C. (2010). Repeated testing produces superior transfer of learning relative to repeated studying. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 36(5), 1118-1133. doi:10.1037/a0019902, 10.1037/a0019902.supp.
Dunlosky, J., Rawson, K.A., Marsh, E.J., Nathan, M.J., & Willingham, D.T. (2013). Improving students' learning with effective learning techniques: Promising directions from cognitive and educational psychology. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 14(1), 4-58. doi:10.1177/1529100612453266.
Ebbinghaus, H. (1913). Memory (HA Ruger & CE Bussenius, Trans.). New York: Columbia University, Teachers College. (Original work published 1885).
Gates, A. I. (1917). Recitation as a factor in memorizing. New York: Science Press.
Jensen, J. L., McDaniel, M.A., Woodard, S.M., & Kummer, T.A. (2014). Teaching to the test ... or testing to teach: Exams requiring higher order thinking skills encourage greater conceptual understanding. Educational Psychology Review, 26(2), 307-329. doi:10.1007/s10648-013-9248-9.
Kang, S. H. (2016). Spaced repetition promotes efficient and effective learning policy implications for instruction. Policy Insights from the Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 3, 12–19.
Karpicke, J. D., Blunt, J. R., & Smith, M. A. (2016). Retrieval-based learning: positive effects of retrieval practice in elementary school children. Frontiers in Psychology, 7.
Karpicke, J.D., & Blunt, J.R. (2011). Retrieval practice produces more learning than elaborative studying with concept mapping. Science, 331(6018), 772-775. doi:10.1126/science.1199327.
Kornell, N., & Bjork, R. A. (2008). Learning concepts and categories is spacing the “enemy of induction”? Psychological Science, 19, 585–592.
McDaniel, M. A., Thomas, R. C., Agarwal, P. K., McDermott, K. B., & Roediger, H. L. (2013). Quizzing in middle-school science: successful transfer performance on classroom exams. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 27, 360–372.
McDermott, K. B., Agarwal, P. K., D’Antonio, L., Roediger, H. L., & McDaniel, M. A. (2014). Both multiple-choice and short-answer quizzes enhance later exam performance in middle and high school classes. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, 20, 3–21.
Patel, R., Liu, R., & Koedinger, K. (2016). When to block versus interleave practice? Evidence against teaching fraction addition before fraction multiplication. In Proceedings of the 38th Annual Meeting of the Cognitive Science Society, Philadelphia, PA.
Roediger, H. L., & Karpicke, J. D. (2006). The power of testing memory: basic research and implications for educational practice. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 1, 181–210.
Rohrer, D., Dedrick, R. F., & Stershic, S. (2015). Interleaved practice improves mathematics learning. Journal of Educational Psychology, 107, 900–908.
Rohrer, D., & Taylor, K. (2007). The shuffling of mathematics problems improves learning. Instructional Science, 35, 481–498
Seel N.M. (2012) The International Society of the Learning Sciences. In: (eds) Encyclopedia of the Sciences of Learning. Springer, Boston, MA
Squire, L. (2009). Memory and Brain Systems. The Journal of Neuroscience, 12711-12716; DOI: https://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.3575-09.2009
Weinstein, Y., Madan, C.R. & Sumeracki, M.A. (2018) Teaching the science of learning. Cogn. Research 3, 2 doi:10.1186/s41235-017-0087-y
Featured Researcher
Follow the ASRJ
Check us out on Twitter!
-
RT @scienceatlantic: Science Atlantic #Psych2019 is happening at @MountAllison for the first time since 2007 when we were still known as… https://t.co/Zsx55ERGJx